Theories of Mass Extinction :: essays research papers

Scientists have found the first evidence that a devastating meteoroid doctor in the Middle due east might have triggered the mysterious collapse of civilisations more than 4,000 historic period ago.Studies of satellite images of southern Iraq have revealed a two-mile-wide circular depression which scientists say bears all the hallmarks of an impact crater. If confirmed, it would point to the Middle East being struck by a meteor with the violence equivalent to hundreds of nuclear bombs.Todays crater lies on what would have been modify sea 4,000 years ago, and any impact would have caused devastating fires and flooding.The catastrophic effect of these could explain the mystery of why so many early cultures went into choppy decline around 2300 BC.They include the demise of the Akkad culture of central Iraq, with its mysterious semi-mythological emperor Sargon the end of the fifth dynasty of Egypts Old Kingdom, following the building of the Great Pyramids and the sudden disappeara nce of hundreds of early settlements in the Holy Land.Until now, archaeologists have put forward a host of separate explanations for these events, from local wars to environmental changes. Recently, some astronomers have suggested that meteor impacts could explain such historical mysteries.The craters faint outline was found by Dr Sharad Master, a geologist at the University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, on satellite images of the Al Amarah region, just about 10 miles northwestern United States of the confluence of the Tigris and Euphrates and home of the Marsh Arabs."It was a purely accidental disco very(prenominal)," Dr Master told The Telegraph last week. "I was reading a magazine article about the canal-building projects of Saddam Hussein, and there was a photograph showing lots of formations - one of which was very, very circular."Detailed analysis of other satellite images taken since the mid-1980s showed that for many years the crater contained a small lak e.The draining of the region, as part of Saddams campaign against the Marsh Arabs, has since caused the lake to recede, revealing a ring-like ridge inside the larger bowl-like depression - a classic feature of meteor impact craters.The crater also appears to be, in geological terms, very recent. Dr Master said "The sediments in this region are very young, so whatever caused the crater-like structure, it must have happened within the past 6,000 years."Reporting his finding in the latest issue of the journal Meteoritics &amp wandering Science, Dr Master suggests that a recent meteor impact is the most plausible explanation for the structure.

Toni Morissons The Bluest Eye Essay -- Toni Morisson Bluest Eye Essay

Toni Morissons The Bluest EyeToni Morissons novel The Bluest Eye is about the life of the Breedlove family who lie in Lorain, Ohio, in the late 1930s (where Morrison herself was born). This family consists of the mother Pauline, the father Cholly, the son Sammy, and the daughter Pecola. The novels focal point is the daughter, an eleven-year-old Black girl who is trying to conquer a bout with self- abhorrence. Everyday she encounters racism, not just from the White people, but mostly from her own race. In their eyes she is much too dark, and the darkness of her skin someway manifests that she is inferior, and according to everyone else, her skin makes her even uglier. She feel she bathroom overcome this battle of self-hatred by obtaining blue eyes, but not just any blue. She wants the bluest of the blue, the bluest eye.Pecola Breedlove is an unacquainted(p) little girl who, like very other young child, did not ask to be born in this cruel world. It is bad enough that often the wh ole world rejects her, but her own parents are guilty of rejection as well. Her own father, who is constantly drunk, sexually molests his daughter more than once. The first time he has sexual intercourse with his daughter, he leaves her slightly unconscious, and lying on the kitchen floor with a guilt covering her frail, limp, preteen body. The next time he performs the kindred act, but this time he impregnates her. Of course, the baby is miscarried. This is obviously not a love a father should be sharing with a daughter. This act displays hatred in the worst way.Her mothers rejection is subtle yet potent. When Pecola tells her mother about the molestation, Mrs. Breedlove does not believe her own flesh and blood. Pecola calls Pauline Mrs. Breedlove... ...n females read this book because I am very curious about how they would react. I feel that they could relate to, and benefit most from this novel, and I bet every young African-American female can relate to at least one character in this book.Toni Morrison was born in Lorain, Ohio in 1931. Her birth name was Chloe Anthony Wofford. She attended Howard University, where she original her B.A. She also received an M.A. from Cornell University. Besides being a writer, she teaches as well. She is now a professor at Princeton University. She is known for such novels as Sula, Beloved, and Tar Baby. She has won numerous awards, such as the Pulitzer Prize for her novel Beloved and the Nobel Prize for Literature.1Works Cited1Kennedy, X.J., Dorothy M. Kennedy, and Sylvia A. Holladay. The Bedford Guide for College Writers. Boston Bedford Books of St. Martin Press.

Child Care and Observation Essay -- Child Psychology Essay

Observation is very important in young kidskinren because that is how you get to know a child better. While observing how a child interacts with their peers, adults, and how they be eat in different settings, you are getting to know the child without speaking to them. It may be important to observe a child merely at the same time it may mislead you into being judgmental, too soon. For instance, if you observe a child misbehaving, not getting along with the other children or talking back to the teacher, you might get the impression that he/she is a bad child and you might treat and act differently with that particular child.From my personal experiences, I have to come to the conclusion that it doesnt always work the way I believe when observing a child. I strongly feel that in localise to get to know a child you should not spend most of your time observing him/her. Interacting with the child gives off better results. Not once or twice, this should be a consistent thing.For example , in room seven we have a child by the name of Thomas which most of us have heard about him. He appears to be very aggressive and angry from what we have observed. Even though the child may be difficult at times, I cannot turn my back on him and give up because of this. We can only observe what lies in front of us. No one really knows what goes on when the child is home with his parents. He might be going through some really hard times with his family and this is how he is coping with it but, ...

Physics of Fireworks Essay -- physics firework fireworks

After black powder was discovered by the Chinese in the 9th Century, the relatively short history of fireworks began with this explosive chemical composition. Black powder is make up of potassium nitrate, sulfur, and charcoal (KNO3) in the correct amounts, this combination has very explosive results. The use of black powder sprung forth the evolution of muskets, rockets, and fireworks. Although history has shown that the develop custodyt of black powder muskets into modern day guns, artillery, and weapons of mass destruction make changed the face of the earth, taken many lives, and changed the outcome of many wars, black powder is also used in many rituals and celebrations.While traveling the globe, Marco Polo, fascinated by this black powder, brought it back to the West were it soon caught on. In Rome, King Charles V used fireworks to celebrate a victory. The fireworks were developed and made by his fire workers who made leaps and bounds with the projectiles and rocket shape of th e fireworks. These elaborate demonstrations of fire soon spread through Europe and pleased many spectators of the King and Queens Court.In the put ages, Italy and Germany took their displays to another level, incorporating different colors and effects. In Italy, the firework displays were used to accentuation buildings and structures, while in Germany, the focus was more on the fireworks themselves. The name green men was coined on account of the people who would cover themselves in leaves to protect their body from sparks and ashes as they launched fireworks from their hands. As melody grew and became a large part of society, the incorporation of music and firework displays became inseparable. The most infamous of all fireworks displays, f... ...ich ended up missing his head, but tearing the front of the coat. Anyone who has ever felt the material on a fire coat can tell you that it would be very difficult to do damage like that to fire coat in a bout second. BibliographyLancas ter, Ronald, and Butler, Roy E.A., and Lancaster, J. Mark, and Shimizu, Takeo.Fireworks Principles and Practice. New York Ticknor, 2002.Pihko, Petri. Pyrotechnics The Art of Fire. 1998. Online posting. Pihko, Petri. 12April 2003. http//cc.oulu.fi/kempmp/pyro.htmlProQuest Information and Learning Company. Physics of Fireworks. 2003.Online posting. Bigchalk The Education Network. 12 April 2003.www.bigchalk.comRussell, Michael S. The Chemistry of Fireworks. York, ME Stenhouse, 2000.The Physics of Colored Fireworks. 1998. Online posting. 12 April 2003.http//cc.oulu.fi/kempmp/pyro.html

On-Screen Violence and Children Essay -- essays research papers

Helping our children be masteryful in school today can improve their success in the world of work tomorrow. There are many studies and programs developed to help children be invite well in school. However, I believe that in tell apart to understand the problems of children demeanor, we have to concentrate not on creating more programs to punish that kind of behavior, but rather understand the causes which contribute to having it on the first place. We extremity to look behind the problem and try to figure out, where it comes from. Thousand of researches have been made trying to understand why this generation experiences behavior difficulties. The most commonality conclusion they have reached was that screen violence, which include TV, radio, music, games, all the entertainment involving violence and course language, is harmful and is one of the reasons young generation fail to have total manners, and involves in aggressive activities. Johnathon L. Freedman is one of those a cademic researchers who try to provide scientific evidence to support the notion that media violence and its effect on trespass is crucial to young children. As taking his notion for true to many people, I would argue that there is no conclusive empirical support of proving much(prenominal) correlation exist and there is no evidence of harmful effect to the present and future actions of the children. The evidences which support that there is any correlation (between the aggression and unhealthful influence of children due to media violence) have failed to consider the high number of children who watch violence, the acceptance of correlation as cause, and the historical evidence of aggression which may have affected the children long before violent entertainment came into play in their lif... ... institutional organization working well. First, make sure children do well in the earlier educational process and do not miss any important knowledge which will be essential in the fu ture. Keep in eye on the friends, and the school progress of the child. If it appears that he/she has a minor behaviour problems try to resolve it as soon as possible because if a kid gets labeled from the society as being problematic, this impression is very difficult to change. Second, a child must learn how to participate in the dodge of employment. Having good recommendation letters, previous experience, and good academic record will help to get a well paid rail line. Last, once you get a nice working positions continue to educate in the sphere of your work. Being on the top of new technology and using it in the course of you job will help succeed in the world of capitalism.

On-Screen Violence and Children Essay -- essays research papers

Helping our children be successful in school today can improve their success in the world of work tomorrow. on that point are many studies and programs developed to help children behave well in school. However, I believe that in order to understand the problems of children demeanor, we have to concentrate not on creating more programs to punish that kind of behavior, but rather understand the causes which contribute to having it on the first place. We need to look behind the problem and analyze to figure out, where it comes from. Thousand of researches have been made trying to understand why this generation experiences behavior difficulties. The most common conclusion they have reached was that screen violence, which include TV, radio, music, games, all the entertainment involving violence and course language, is harmful and is wizard of the reasons young generation fail to have unattackable manners, and involves in aggressive activities. Johnathon L. Freedman is one of tho se academic researchers who try to provide scientific evidence to support the notion that media violence and its effect on aggression is crucial to young children. As taking his notion for true to many people, I would argue that there is no conclusive empirical support of proving such correlation exist and there is no evidence of harmful effect to the present and future actions of the children. The evidences which support that there is any correlation (between the aggression and bad influence of children due to media violence) have failed to find the high number of children who watch violence, the acceptance of correlation as cause, and the historical evidence of aggression which may have affected the children long before rampageous entertainment came into play in their lif... ... institutional organization working well. First, make sure children do well in the earlier educational process and do not miss any important knowledge which will be essential in the future. Keep in e ye on the friends, and the school pass along of the child. If it appears that he/she has a minor behaviour problems try to resolve it as soon as possible because if a kid gets labeled from the society as being problematic, this impression is very difficult to change. Second, a child must learn how to participate in the system of employment. Having good recommendation letters, previous experience, and good academic record will help to get a well paid job. Last, once you get a nice working positions continue to amend in the sphere of your work. Being on the top of new technology and using it in the course of you job will help succeed in the world of capitalism.

School Bells

The elementary years of my life were the some stress free and enjoyable time of my life. I c on the whole back when I was in elementary school, after school I would go to my backyard to catch frogs in the lake backyard. My best friend, Steven, and I would also go to the car park and play in the playground. Life was too good during the earlier years. No conflicts, just scrapped knees. This was the time I also first learned how to ride my back. It was the most rewarding day I can call. At first, I believed I could never learn to ride a bike.But with the assistance of my dad it was all possible. I remember the moment so clearly, my dad letting go of me. I pedaled emotional state as if I was flying. The only problem was that I did not learn how to stop yet. What happened later is not as lovely. Ms. Fazio the best fifth grade teacher anyone can ask for. I also remember liberation to Islands of Adventure towards the end of my fifth grade year. Mrs. Fazio and I rode in the front of a roller coaster, I believe the ride was called Dueling Dragon.I just remember Ms.Fazio screaming through the whole ride. The day overall was amazing. But sadly bygones are just bygones. Now I have to worry about college, homework, work, and my future. I miss having to worry about scraped knees and getting my agenda signed. Life was good during the elementary days. Come home watch television, eat cookies, and go out feeling as though nothing can go wrong. Running around during recess and playing tag. Times sadly have sadly changed. Now I am just left with these nostalgic feelings.

Huck Finn: Opposition to Racism

Megan Patton John Rohrkemper February 28, 2010 American Lit Exposing the Racist, Opposing Racism Since its original takings in 1884, The Adventures of huckleberry Finn has proven to be integrity of the most controversial when it comes to the reoccurring issue of race in American society. Many argue that Mark bridge held the racial ideals that most people had in the 1830s, while others know that Twain was a social satirist, mocking the ignorance of society. In order to be considered a racialist original huckaback Finn would have to advocate racism.The evidence thus far has lead me to bank that The Adventures of huckleberry Finn promotes a strong set of antiracist ethical values as the primary(prenominal) char proceedinger, Jim, a packaway slave is displayed as the best, most honorable character, while other duster characters are depicted as ignorant and self centered, lacking(p) ethical reasoning. The immorality of racism is periodic anyy satirized through prohibited the i nvigorated. The unethical thinking of the condemnation period of slavery is an issue that Twain recognizes, mocks, and clearly presents his opposition toward. wizard of the master(prenominal) concerns consistently brought up by those who argue that Twain is racist is that simply base on the dialogue and use of the word nigger, Twain is being unresponsive toward blacks. He must be a racist if he is using such a derogatory term. However, they fail to realize that he is telling a story how it would have happened and he avoids beating around the bush in order to lay protrude the reality of the time period when people sedulous in such communication.Justin Kaplan uses powerful words on the matter when he questions people who have allowed him or herself veritable(a) the barest minimum of intelligent response to its key spirit (378) and still accuse it of being racist because some of its characters use offensive racial epithets (378). On the surface, this can easily be detected as r acism but when taking a look at particular circumstances of ignorance, Hucks internal battling experiences, and satiric element, the intent is clear. Jim, unmatched of the main characters of the fresh, is undoubtedly the most moral character in the novel.Julius Lester argues in his piece Morality in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn that Jim is a childlike character and is non taken ill since he runs away and does non immediately seek his freedom (365). However, Jim has been brought up in a time where he himself feels some sort of inferiority complicated to whites in society. Lester is partially correct in his philosophy that Jim is childlike, but wrong in the idea that this is a negative aspect of his character. His childlike quality characterizes his humility, nobility, and kindness.He is such(prenominal) more one of the wiser characters in the novel as he recognizes the mistakes he has made and even expresses his depravity to Huck. He tells Huck a story nearly a time w hen he asked his four year old daughter to Shut de do (154) and she just stood there smiling at him, deaf to the occurrence that her father was instructing her to shut the door. Since he did not realize she had scarlet fever and had grown deaf, he beat her for her disobedience. When he realized that she was deaf, he bust out cryin en grab her up in his arms, and give voice Oh, de po little thingDe Lord God almighty fogive po ol Jim(155) After beating his daughter, he realizes that what he did is wrong. He learns from his mistakes and asked for forgiveness from God who he believes is all powerful with the power to forgive man of his sins. In this scene Jim demonstrates wisdom. He takes what he knows, puts it to use, and repents. part he may not be the most educated character in the novel, he seems to have the most caring mili tary strength based on the principles he has learned. According to Bennett Kravitz, Jim is portrayed as noble, loyal, and the ultimate friend and family man . On the contrary to his childlike trait that Lester believes Jim has, he is actually a father and acts much(prenominal) more like a caregiver. In a scene where Huck plays a trick on Jim, Jim grows seriously worried for Hucks life. He even announces after an angry rant that Huck scared him half to death, that my heart wuz mos broke bekase you wuz los, en I didnt kyer no mo what become er me en de raf(99). He goes on to express how he was so excited to see Huck alive that tears almost came.This is a critical point in the novel, for it is the first time the friendship of Huck and Jim is revealed by one of the characters themselves. Of course, Jim being the gentle person he is, is the first one to call this relationship a friendship. Besides becoming worried over what he thought was the loss of his friend Huck, Jim conveys his care giving qualities towards the end of the novel when he stays behind to help nurse Tom back to health. Jim bases his actions on what he thinks Tom Sawyer wo uld do in the situation and insists n getting a doctor. His persistence is so strong that he says, I doan budge a step outn dis place, dout a doctor not if its forty year (249). Upon the doctors arrival, Jim comes out of hiding and aids the doctor, knowing that he will be recaptured. Not only is he being a concerned care giving man, but Jim is risking his freedom for a person he barely knows. He has that father like full that Julius Lester seems to have missed. It is the other characters in the novel who demonstrate weak ethical values.Many of the characters who have racist credentials are portrayed as lowly, immoral, and uneducated. They rarely show remorse and are entirely self-centered. On the other hand, Jim is an easygoing, loving person who as uneducated as he is, consistently cares for others, is loyal to his friendships, and feels guilt in his mistakes. After being visually described as having been drunk over in town and laying in the gutter all night, (52) Pap goes on to rule fault in the government for not only taking away his son, but for allowing a nigger from Ohio to become a professor.Ironically, Pap thinks he is outstanding to a highly educated man who could talk all kinds of languages, and knowed everything (52) and is angry with the government for allowing a nigger to teach. He is so wrapped up in the skin color that he does not realize his own faults and incapacity. Additionally, Pap is quite the opposite of Jim who loves his family, articulates his longing to be with them as well as his guilt for beating his daughter. Pap came back into Hucks life demanding the money he received in The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, not because he loved Huck and wanted to be more involved in his life.He does not have a care in the world for Huck, his only son. When finally Pap kidnaps Huck and has the chance to develop that father, son relationship, he locks him in a cabin while he goes out and gets wasted, and when he returns, Pap beats the boy. In Hucks wo rds Pap got too handy with his hickry and I couldnt stand it. Welts all over (50). Incongruously to Jims remorse, Pap is not phased by his wrongdoing. Twain certainly did this on purpose. The racism held by Hucks father, as well as many other Americans preceding the cultivated War when blacks and other minorities were seen as inferiors, is displayed throughout the novel.Through the constant use of the derogatory term nigger and the maltreatment of Jim as well as other blacks and slaves, Twain is able to illustrate societys ignorance. This way, as The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is taught throughout the country, young people, or any person for that matter can see the veracity and hard knocks of racist attitudes. Pap is not the only character in the novel who displays a loose set of moral values. The escapade with the Duke and the Dauphin is another encounter in the novel where whites are displayed as weak, self centered people who are blindly racist.Twain uses their constant con niving deeds to show a diversity of white characters in this society as horrible people. In Justin Kaplans Born To Trouble 100 Years of Huckleberry Finn, he describes Jim and Huck being on the run because of a nightmare society driven by bigotry, violence, exploitation, greed, and ignorance (379) These words are perfect in describing the Duke and the Dauphin as they move from town to town tricking people out of their money.In one particular scenario, it is not even possible to feel sorry for the townspeople who are getting tricked out of their money because then they go and act like the play was great so that everyone else in the town gets tricked out of their money as well. Along with Pap, the Duke, and the Dauphin are the religious characters who seem to have it all together but in spades do not. By displaying even the best of the best characters with racist attitudes, Twain shows how it was society as a whole who held racist ideals, not just the lowlife criminal types.An example of a character that seems to have herself together is Ms. Watson. She is supposed to be a smart, religious, good-intending family adult female. Even the good woman who took Huck into her home to raise him sivilized has flaws. While in the end she is the one to grant Jim his freedom, preceding this she put her selfish desires for money ahead of Jim and though he was her slave, Jim was someone she had known for quite a while. To Jims knowledge, he was someone she cared about on some level even if she did not see him as an equal. Jim overheard Ms.Watson talking about selling Jim down the river, which is the very reason he ran away. Another supposedly wholesome, good intending character is auntie Sally. When Huck first meets Aunt Sally he describes an accident on the boat he was traveling on. Aunt Sally exclaims Good Gracious Anybody hurt? to which Huck replies Nom Killed a nigger (206). Sadly, this quote is often seen as racist but in actuality it contains a very satirical element a nd according to Kaplan is a frequently, brutal, dire realism (379). The novel is simply showing the corruption of the adult world.Peaches Henry argues that In order to believe in Twains satirical intention, one has to believe in Hucks good faith toward Jim (390). It is easy to identify Hucks good faith toward Jim throughout the novel. Aside from the idiocy of a studyity of characters, Hucks internal battles with himself throughout the novel demonstrate Mark Twains antiracist beliefs. Though Huck, in his conscience believes blacks to be worthless, his somewhat naive personality and conscience can be blamed. He has been spoon-fed everything he knows about Africans by a society which has enslaved them and had a superior attitude towards them.It is a tough situation to examine, as by todays standards slavery is seen by the overwhelming majority of American citizens as morally wrong, but in Hucks time and place the majority saw it as the natural order of things. However, despite his up bringings and learned racism, Huck periodically has instances where he believes Jim seems white or, in other words, seems to be like any other human with feelings, emotions, and close family relations. Earlier, in a moment where Jim shows his care giving qualities, Huck shows one of his first signs of affection toward a nigger. He shows his first signs of remorse as he apologizes to Jim.Though he does mention it was fifteen minutes before I would work myself up to go and chagrin myself to nigger (100) Huck does apologize, feels remorse, and admits to the audience that what he did made him feel mean (99). The second time Huck has a moment of realization about Jim that surprises him is when Jim dialog about his family. When Jim goes on to describe them, and the regret he had for beating his daughter for something she didnt deserve, Huck sees something in Jim that he had in all probability had been taught that blacks did not posses. He was probably taught that they did not have fee lings.He realizes in this moment that Jim must have feelings and therefore makes that statement that Jim is white inside. Additionally, in the moment earlier discussed in Toms injured state where Jim uses logic to decide on calling a doctor, Huck states, I knowed he was white inside, and I reckoned hed say what he did say so it was alright, now. The most climactic moment in the novel is the ultimate battle Huck faces when he is forced to choose between the societal values he has been taught and raised to believe is right or to help Jim which he feels in his heart is the right thing to do.Huck has been raised to believe that blacks were uneducated, inferior, and most certainly not people to become friends with. For all Huck knew, blacks were placed on the earth to work and lacked the ability to love and care. Huck definitely believed that aiding a black man in an escape would send him to hell. This moment directly indicates how foolish Twain believed the people of the time period to be. Huck states, I was trembling, because Id got to decide forever betwixt two things, and I knowed it.I studied a minute, sort of holding my breath, and then says to myself All right, then, Ill go to hell and tore it up. By this point in the novel, through their adventures and development of friendship, Huck is willing to risk eternity in hell to save his friend. Surely, even if he may not admit that he and Jim were friends, someone would not risk their lives for a stranger, or even an acquaintance. Not only does Huck father to see Jim as an equal in his heart, though it may not be in his conscience, he is also constantly seeing how dreadfully society is.In order to detect racism there must be a middle step of realization that ill treatment of people based on their skin color is wrong. In order to see that this is wrong, it is important to notice the problems within society to begin with. In his experience with the Duke and Dauphin, Huck witnesses their tar and feathering, an other cruel punishment by society, and states that, It was enough to make a body ashamed of the human race (160). The fact that Huck even acknowledges a problem in the human race would not have been part of the story if Twain had agreed with societys resume on slavery.It demonstrates his antiracist approach. One of the purposes of the novel is for the reader to develop sympathy towards Jim. Because the people around him lack morals while he consistently shows a moral and accepting view towards life, his character develops superiorly to the rest of society despite his lack of education. His lack of education exists because of Twains realist approach to the novel. People like Julius Lester and Peaches Henry who believe the novel to be racist, are only looking at the surface and the degrading dialogue.The novel was not made to be politically correct. Twain takes issue with the major racial theories of his day, and those critics who are convinced only of the racist potential of the te xt and/or Mark Twain would do well to examine the unsaid of the text. (Kravitz) If it was rewritten to stay put the masses and use more accepted terms for todays day and age, reality would be misrepresented, race would cease to be an issue, and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn would not exist as one the greatest pieces of American Literature.

Historical Background of Victimology Essay

I. IntroductionThe nature and extent of dupeization is non adequately understood across the world. Millions of concourse throughout the world suffer harm as a publication of disgust, the cry of male monarch, terrorism and early(a) stern misfortunes. Their rights and needs as dupes of this harm start not been adequately recognized. The UN General Assembly pick out the Declaration on Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of detestation and Ab handling of Power in 1985. This provides a universal benchmark by which progress sewer be assessed in meeting the needs of dupes of hatred and smear of power. Much progress has been make since 1985 primarily by organizations in Western Europe, North America and elsewhere. They deplete implemented architectural plans and uprightnesss to give effect to those basic principles more all over even in affluent countries much turn oer remains. Additional resources atomic number 18 needed of all timeywhere curiously for countries that atomic number 18 developing and in transition.The convention on transnational organized aversion implys a specific section to protect the rights of dupes as does the optional protocol on trafficking. By June, 2005, 99 nations had already ratified the Statute of Rome that establishes a permanent transnational Criminal Court which gives effect to the principles in the Declaration. The rights of the victims of crime and abuse of power be still not adequately recognized in any bug out of the world. Their families, witnesses and others, who aid them, ar still unjustly subjected to loss, disability or defacement. They too often suffer hardship when assisting in the prosecution of offenders.The recent UN Congress in Bangkok also drew attention to the victims of terrorism. Victims of stark misfortunes such as inborn disasters, accidents and diseases sh ar homogeneous trauma, loss and pitiable. Services to meet the needs of victims shed much in common between victims of cr ime, abuse of power and stark misfortunes. Action must be taken to advance look, services and aw areness for victims across the world. This requires persons committed to these ideals, better services, more re front, innovative discipline and training and continued advocacy and rights. It requires a process of assessing progress and acting to make the necessary improvements.II. DISCUSSIONI. HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF VICTIMOLOGYA. The Early RootsThe word victim has its roots in many ancient languages that covered a great distance from northwestern Europe to the southern tip of Asia and yet had a similar linguistic pattern victima in Latin vh, woh, wg in Old European wh, whi in Old High German v in Old Norse weihs in Gothic and, vinak ti in Sanskrit (Websters 1971).Victimology as an academic marge contains both elements One is the Latin word Victima which translates into victim. The other is the Greek word logos which means a body of knowledge, the direction of something abstract, t he direction of teaching, science, and a discipline. Although writings about(predicate) the victim appeared in many early works by such criminologists as Beccaria (1764), Lombroso (1876), Ferri (1892), Garfalo (1885), Sutherland (1924), Hentig (1948), Nagel (1949), Ellenberger (1955), Wolfgang (1958) and Schafer (1968), the concept of a science to knowledge victims and the word victimology had its origin with the early writings of Beniamin Mendelsohn (1937 1940), these leading to his seminal work where he actually proposed the term victimology in his article A New section of Bio-Psycho-Social Science, Victimology (1956).It was in this article that he suggested the establishment of an outside(a) society of victimology which has come to fruition with the inception of the World Society of Victimology, the establishment of a number of victimological institutes (including the creation in Japan of the Tokiwa International Victimology Institute) and, the establishment of planetary jo urnals which are now also a part of this institute. Mendelsohn provided us with his victimology vision and blueprint and, as his disciples we establish followed his guidance. We now refer to Mendelsohn as The Father of Victimology.B. Critical Dates in Victimology 1924 Edwin Sutherland includes a chapter on victims in his criminology textbook. 1937 Beniamin Mendelsohn notifyes his writings on the rapist and his victim. 1941 Hans von Hentig publishes article on victim and twist interactions. 1947 Beniamin Mendelsohn coins the term victimology in a French journal. 1948 Hans von Hentig publishes his book The Criminal and His Victim. 1949 Frederic Wertham commencement exercise used the word victimology in a book Show of Violence. 1957 Margery child proposes victim recompense in the London Times. 1958 Marvin Wolfgang studies homicide victims uses the term victim precipitation. 1963 New Zealand enacts the first of all Criminal stipend Act. 1965 California is the first state in the USA to start Victim Compensation. 1966 Japan enacts Criminal Indemnity Law. 1966 USA starts to accompany crime victims not reported to the police 1967 Canada creates a Criminal Compensation Injuries Act as does Cuba and Switzerland. 1968 Stephan Schafer writes the first victimology textbook The Victim and His Criminal. 1972 The first deuce-ace victim assistance programmes are created in St. Louis, Missouri, San Francisco, California and in Washington, D. C. 1973 the first international symposium on victimology is held in Jerusalem, Israel. 1974 the first police-based victim advocate project started in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, USA. 1975 The first Victim Rights Week is organized by the Philadelphia District Attorney, * beau Professor, Criminology Department, California State University, Fresno Director, Tokiwa International Victimology Institute, Tokiwa University Victimology Graduate School, Japan. Pennsylvania, USA. 1976 John Dussich launches the National Organiz ation of Victim Assistance (NOVA) in Fresno, California, USA. 1976 Emilio Viano launches the first scholarly journal devoted to victimology. 1976 jam Rowland creates the first Victim Impact Statement in Fresno, California, USA. 1979 The World Society of Victimology is puted in Munster, Germany. 1980 Mothers Against Drunk Drivers (MADD) is builded by Candi Lightner after one of her twin daughters was killed by a drunk driver who was a repeat offender. 1981 President Ronald Reagan procl identifys the first national Victims Rights Week in April. 1982 the first Victim Impact Panel accomplished by MADD to educate drunk drivers about how their victims suffered, started in Rutland, Massachusetts, USA. 1984 The Victims of Crime Act (VOCA) establishes the national Crime Victims Fund from federal crime fines to pay for state victim compensation and services. 1985 The United Nations unanimously adopts the Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power. 1987 The US Department of Justice opens the National Victims Resource Centre in Rockville, Maryland. 1988 The first Indian Nations Justice for Victims of Crime conference is held by the Office for Victims of Crime in Rapid City, South Dakota, USA. 1990 The European Forum for Victim Services was founded by all the national organizations in Europe working for victims of crime in consultative status with the Council of Europe and the UN. 1999 The United Nations and the US Office for Victims of Crime publish the Guide for Policymakers on the Implementation of the United Nations Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power and the Handbook on Justice for Victims On the gist abuse and Application of the United Nations Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power. 2002 On 11 April, 66 the Rome Statute was ratified & went into force on 1 July at which time the International Criminal Court became effecti ve and it included the creation of a Victim and Witness Unit. 2003 On October 2nd the Tokiwa International Victimology Institute, in Mito Japan opened its doors to promote victim rights, to conduct seminars, courses, publish an international journal, and host annual symposia and lectures and investigate about victimology. 2004 The World Society of Victimology at its annual Executive Committee meeting in Orlando, Florida adopts a dramatic juvenile strategic plan to commit itself to the ideals and promises of the UN Declaration. 2005 Japan puts the UN Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power into their national legislation by adopting a new fundamental law for crime victims. To ensure that the principles would be initiated, the Prime Minister schematic a cabinet level committee. The new law includes services for victims, restitution from the offender, information about wretched arbitrator and a right to formally inscribe in the felonious justice pro cess.C. Victim AssistanceSince the mid 1970s victim assistance programmes in America had to cope with the realization that this new theatre did not watch a professional corps of people with special(a) training in dealing with crime victims. Those who were working in the programmes were a garland of medical doctors, ministers, psychiatrists, psychologists, social workers, nurses, on-the-job trained counsellors, persons outside the assistanting professions and volunteers with all levels of training. There were no international or national professional standards. There was no certificate or degree to prepare someone to do the work of helping victims recover. However, before formal victim assistance programmes evolved, there were some people trained to work with victim problems, especially people who had been helping child abuse and family ferocity victims. These were social workers.Today, the victim services scene has changed. There are a wide array of professionals and non-profe ssionals working with victims. These would include social workers, psychologists, psychiatrists, nurses, medical doctors, non-specific professionals (who received their formal degrees in other fields but were trained to help victims in the many training schools which are both part and independent of academic settings) and, volunteers (who also received their training in the numerous training schools which are both part and independent of academic settings, many of which are 40 hour training modules offered by the victim service agencies where they work).Today the field of victim assistance is the study career field in victimology for persons wanting to help victims of crime directly. The single largest and oldest university offering a bachelors degree in victimology and a victim services certificate is the California State University, Fresno. Worldwide, it foot be estimated that there are about 20,000 victim service programmes now operational reducing suffering and facilitating recovery.II. KEY CONCEPTS IN VICTIMOLOGYA. Concepts1. Victim has it roots in the early religious notions of suffering, sacrifice and death. This concept of victim was well known in the ancient civilizations, especially in Babylonia, Palestine, Greece, and Rome. In each of these civilizations the law mandated that the victim should be recognized as a person who deserved to be made whole again by the offender. 2. Crime victim is a person who has been physically, financially or worked uply injured and/or had their property taken or damaged by someone committing a crime. 3. Victimogenesis refers to the origin or cause of a development the constellation of variables which caused a victimization to occur. 4. Victim Precipitation a victimization where the victim causes, in part or totally, their own victimization. 5. Vulnerability is a physical, mental, social, material or financial condition whereby a person or an object has a weakness which could render them a victim if another person or persons would recognize these weaknesses and take advantage of them. 6. General Victim is a person who has been physically, financially or arousedly injured and/or had their property taken or damaged by someone, an event, an organization or a natural phenomenon.7. Victimization refers to an event where persons, communities and institutions are damaged or injured in a significant way. Those persons who are nominate-to doe withed by persons or events suffer a violation of rights or significant disruption of their well being. 8. Victimology is an academic scientific discipline which studies data that describes phenomena and causal relationships related to victimizations. This includes events leading to the victimization, the victims experience, its import and the actions taken by society in solution to these victimizations. Therefore, victimology includes the study of the precursors, vulnerabilities, events, impacts, recoveries, and responses by people, organizations and cultur es related to victimizations.9. Abuse of Power is the violation of a national or international standard in the use of organized powerful forces such that persons are injured physically, mentally, emotionally, frugalally, or in their rights, as a direct and intentional result of the misapplication of these forces. 10. Victim Assistance, Support or Services are those activities which are applied in response to victimizations with the intention of relieving suffering and facilitating recovery. This includes offering information, assessments, individual interventions, oddball advocacy, system advocacy, public policy and programme development.11. Victim Recovery is the resumption of the same or better level of functionality as was enjoyed prior to victimization. Persons who have been secondhand vary in their level of mental health and wellbeing prior to their victimization. Consequently, victimization affects each person in a different way and causes differing degrees of injury or tra uma. In their recovery it is necessary for victims to first try to regain their previous level of functioning plus learn from their misfortune and hopefully eliminate their previous level of functionality. To be recovered suggests that a person has at least regained their prior level of well-being and at best, has exceeded it. This state may be measured by identifying their previous mental condition and determining if they have at least regained that prior status using the criteria of trust in others, autonomy of self, individual initiative, competency in daily activities, self-identity, interpersonal intimacy, control over personal situations, successful relationships, safety in daily activities, acknowledgment of memory, trauma symptoms have become manageable, self esteem is restored, resourcefulness is achieved, and there is an improved ability to ward off potential threats.12. Child Abuse is the intentional application of sexual, physical, emotional or psychological injury to a child to include neglect at the hands of her or his parents or care-provider within the confines of their family or built in bed of care. 13. Victim Offender Mediation (VOM) is a formal process for face-to-face meetings in the presence of a trained mediator between a victim of a crime and his/her offender who committed that crime. This is also called victim-offender converse, victim-offender conferencing, victim-offender reconciliation, or restorative justice. Often the victim and the offender are joined by their respective families and club members or other persons related to the crime event. In these meetings, the offender and the victim talk to each other about the victimization, the effects it had on their lives, and their feelings about it. The aim is to create a mutually agreeable plan to repair any damage or injury that occurred as a result of the crime in the hopes of permanently eliminating the conflict that caused the crime in the first place.14. Restorative Justice i s a systematic formal juristic response to crime victimization that emphasizes mend the injuries that resulted from the crime and affected the victims, offenders and communities. This process is a departure from the traditional retributive form of dealing with criminals and victims which traditionally have generally perpetuated the conflict which resulted in the skipper crime. 15. Victim Trauma includes emotional and physical experiences that produce pain and injuries. Emotional injury is a normal response to an extremely abnormal event. It results from the pairing of a painful or frightening emotional experience with a specific memory which emerge and have a long lasting effect on the life of a person. The more direct the exposure to the traumatic event, the high the risk for emotional harm and prolonged effects. 16. Crisis Intervention is the provision of emergency psychological care to traumatized victims so as to help them return to an adaptive level of functioning and to pre vent or mitigate the negative impact of psychological and emotional trauma.17. Compensation is a formal administrative procedure provided by law which provides only money to victims for out of pocket real expenses directly resulting from the victimization to be paid by the state after the victim is found to qualify according to specific criteria determined by the respective state or federal law. 18. Restitution is a formal judicial procedure used by a judge after guilt is determined as part of a sentence which can provide money and/or services to the victim for damages or suffering which resulted from the victimization to be paid or performed by the offender.19. Victim Survey is a periodic data collection and analysis process conducted usually by a government entity within the general universe of discourse to study information about crime victims regardless whether they reported their victimization to the police or not. It typically uses a face-to-face or telephone interview (or s ent questionnaire) and covers demographics, attitudes about crime and details about the victimizations experienced over the previous six months. 20. Victim Rights are privileges and procedures required by written law which guarantee victims specific considerations and treatment by the criminal justice system, the government and the community at large.B. Abuse of Power1. BackgroundIn spite of the legal sanctions which exist throughout the world to prevent the abuse of power (AOP), it continues to occur with growing frequency and relative impunity. There are essentially five considerations to abuse of power the type of abuser the specific abuser the method used the victims and the extent of injury and damage. In each of these five considerations there are numerous examples ranging from the Government of South Africas use of apartheid on Black South Africans causing extensive death and suffering, to the criminal organization known as the mafia which uses racketeering, coercion, intimi dation, graft and corruption on innocent citizens causing extensive death, suffering and property loss.The approximately recent example of AOP is the government of Yugoslavia (now dominated by social Serbs) using extreme forms of aggression, against Croats, Bosnia Muslims, and most recently ethnic Kosovans with mass killings mass rapes extensive destruction of property buildings, and sacred cultural symbols, for the most part ignoring the protocols found in the Geneva Conventions for the conduct of warfare. This macro criminological/victimological phenomenon has been extensively reported on by the media and by scholars, but predominantly in narrative form. therefrom far, very few attempts have been made to isolate the key variables, explain the dynamics of these events and measure their occurrences.2. Theoretical ProblemLike all phenomena, these abuse of power events lend themselves to definitions, theoretical organization and measurement. The magnitude of these occurrences drama tically turn our heads away from the dispassionate evaluation of the facts. The drama of these events is so compelling, even trained theorists put off their research tools and yield to the subjective descriptions which overwhelm those chronicling these massive abuses. In spite of the strong emotions, the magnitude of the problem calls for alert measurement, analysis and synthesis so that a degree of understanding can emerge. This proposal result consider using the social behavioural and conflict theories familiar to most criminologist who study macro criminological phenomena.III. MEASURING VICTIMIZATIONA. The Importance and Limitations of Descriptive ResearchDescriptive research is primarily concerned with generally characterizing a phenomenon to determine basic information about amount, frequencies and categories of a particular theme. Thus, one of the basic types of data in descriptive research is nominal level data or the counting of apples and oranges. The most definitive ty pe of victimological descriptive research are victimization surveys. These surveys have thus far become the backbone of victimology information.Not only do these surveys give us the number and types of victims, they also give us trend information so that we can compare victims from one jurisdiction to another, from one type of victim to another, and we can measure the rate of victimization for a given population in a given time period. Another important measurement using survey research is the measurement of behaviours that exist as continua. These types of research give us information about the feelings, opinions and responses the victims have. Thus, they are very important in understanding the impact of victimization and the progress of recovery.1. The Necessity of Evaluative ResearchAnother important type of research is the evaluative research used to measure the official government or organizational responses to victimization and the programmes used to help victims cope. These t ypes of research are aimed at measure the systemic aspects of the victim experience. This is usually focused on the replicate Criteria of Success effectiveness, which evaluates the achievement of programme objectives and, efficiency which evaluates the consumption of resources over the time needed to achieve objectives.Another aspect of evaluative research is accountability, both economic and political. Economic accountability focuses on whether the existence of a particular programme in a given community is justified given the funds usable and the value-system currently in existence. Political accountability focuses on whether the existence of a victim programme and its costs are supported by those in power. A large part of accountability has to do with community values, outcome expectations and official responsibilities. The measurement of these variables helps to socially contextualize a victim programme or response within the larger society or culture.2. Explaining the Victimi zation with Causal ResearchPerhaps the most challenging and difficult form of victimological research is causal research. This research attempts to explain why and how some variables are effected by other variables in those phenomena dealing with victims. For example, it might try to understand why some victims are severely traumatized by an event, while other victims are not seriously impacted by the same event. The usual method of this form of research is to first create hypotheses about the relationships between cause variables and effect variables. Then, to measure these variables and see if the data can support the hypotheses.Ultimately, this process can lead to understanding not just one casual link, but many connected causal links, or a causal chain. A victimologist can then develop a theoretical statement with the new facts uncovered using causal research. These theoretical statements help to understand complex social and psychological victim phenomenon. Consequently persons working to prevent victimization could have empirically derived facts so as to reduce the vulnerability of potential victims. Crisis interveners could effectively reduce the suffering of victims immediately after the victimization and prevent the escalation of trauma. Advocates and therapists, basing their response on protocol analysis, could better know what works to facilitate victim recovery and reduce or eliminate long-term suffering and promote the return to stable and functional lives for those victimized.IV. THE FUTURE OF VICTIMOLOGYA. Promising PracticesAs new programmes and new laws evolve some prove effective and others not. In the search for programmes and laws that fulfil the fundamental aims of the United National Declaration, to be treated with compassion and respect for their dignity, to be provided with access to the mechanisms of justice and to prompt redress to be advised of their rights, to be informed of their role and the scope, timing and progress of the proc eedings and of the disposition of their case, to be provided with proper assistance throughout the legal process, to have their privacy defend and insure their safety, to be considered for receipt of restitution, to be informed about receiving compensation.These criteria determine the value of programmes and laws so that they can be evaluated and ultimately recommended as worthy of duplication. In each of the sub-categories of victim programmes, laws, practices and rights, specific examples have become known. Some of these are listed below (from the New Directions from the Field Victims Rights and Services for the 21st Century, U.S. Department of Justice, 1998).1. Law Enforcement In San Diego, California there is a partnership between the police and the YWCA which resulted in a Community Domestic Violence Resource Network. This has resulted in a major resource for all the police agencies in the community for accurate information about the availability of shelters at any given time. In Provo, Utah victims go into in crime solving, called victim-assisted investigations. In Orange County, California a group of five victim advocates working together in a non-profit programme work with police and prosecutors to ensure comprehensive services for victims of gang violence.2. Prosecution In Kenosha, Wisconsin, a programme established by the district attorney established special prosecution units for domestic violence and sensitive crimes. In Pinellas County, Florida, the states attorneys office established a special prosecutor to be responsible for all elder exploitation and neglect cases. This includes police training, community outreach and education for other prosecutors. In Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the Victim Services Unit located in the District Attorneys Office, employs Vietnamese and Cambodian victim-witness coordinators to assist victims from Southeast Asia throughout their case process, including translating information and helping victims with emerge ncy medical and financial assistance.3. administration In Tucson, Arizona, the Municipal Court established a partnership with the police, victim advocates, prosecutors and health care professionals to form a Community Domestic Violence sentiency Centre. In New York State, the Permanent Judicial Commission on Justice for Children was established to provide assistance to children in the courts so as to provide a special space for child care so that those children whose parents are in court have a safe haven during their stay. In Santa Clara County, California, the courts have established local family violence councils to provide a comprehensive response to domestic violence.4. Corrections In Texas, the Department of Criminal Justice started a victim-offender mediation/dialogue programme for victims of severe violence and their incarcerated offenders. In California one of the best known victim-offender programmes is the Impact of Crime on Victims (IOC) initiated by the California Youth Authority. This programme is aimed at providing 40 hours of education to inform offenders about how crimes affect victims and society. The US Federal Bureau of Prisons piloted victim awareness classes on drug and domestic violence crimes for offenders in halfway houses in Baltimore, Maryland, and Tampa, Florida. B. Reality of Promising PracticesAlthough a wide variety of new programmes have been tried and dubbed as promising most of these have not been subjected to any form of empirical evaluation. Before these programme can be accepted as worthy of duplication, they must be carefully scrutinized over a sufficient time period.V. Demographic CharacteristicsThe risk of becoming a crime victim varies as a function of demographic variables such as Gender Age Race Socioeconomic classGenderWith the exception of sexual combat and domestic violence, men have high risk of appal than women (Gelles & Straus, 1988 Hanson et al., 1993 Norris, 1992). Lifetime risk of homicide is three t o four times higher for men than women (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1992).AgeAdolescents have substantially higher order of assault than newfangled adults or older Americans (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1992 Hanson et al., 1993 Kilpatrick, Edmunds & Seymour, 1992 Kilpatrick et al., in compress Reiss & Roth, 1993 Whitaker & Bastian, 1991). Data from the National Crime Victimization Survey indicate that 12-to-19 year olds are two to three times as likely as those over 20 to become victims of personal crime each year (Whitaker & Bastian, 1991). Data from The National Womens get wind indicate that 62% of all forcible rape cases occurred when the victim was under 18 years of age (Kilpatrick et al., 1992).RaceRacial and ethnic minorities have higher rates of assault than other Americans (FBI Uniform Crime Report, 1992 Hanson et al., 1993 Kilpatrick et al., 1991 Reiss & Roth, 1993). In 1990, African-Americans were six times more likely than washrag Americans to be homicide victims (FBI Uniform Crime Report, 1992). rank of ruffianly assault are approximately twice as high for African- and Hispanic-Americans compared to White Americans (Reiss & Roth, 1993). Kilpatrick et al. (1991) found that African-Americans (28%) and Hispanic-Americans (30%) were significantly more likely than White Americans (19%) to have ever been violent victims of crime.Socioeconomic ClassViolence disproportionately affects those from lower socioeconomic classes (U. S. Bureau of the Census, 1991). Family income is related to rates of violence and victimization, with lower income families at a higher risk than those from higher income brackets (Reiss & Roth, 1993). For example, in 1988, the risk of victimization was 2.5 times greater for families with the lowest incomes (under $7,500) compared to those with the highest ($50,000 and over) (Reiss & Roth, 1993).Using longitudinal data from The National Womens Study, Kilpatrick et al., (in press) found that women with class incomes less than $10,000 had odds 1.8 times greater than those with incomes of $10,000 or more of becoming a rape or aggravated assault victim in the two year follow-up period. Poverty increased the risk of assault even after controlling for the effects of prior victimization and sensation seeking. However, some other studies report that family income is a less important predictor of victimization than gender, age, or ethnicity (Reiss & Roth, 1993).Interpreting Demographic Characteristic DataSome of the conflicting findings about demographic characteristics as risk factors for violent crime are attributable to methodological variations across studies. Another reason for conflicting findings is that many demographic variables are confounded. That is, they are so interrelated as to cause some difficulty in separating out their relative contributions. Demographic variables of age, gender, and racial status all tend to be confounded with income boylike people tend to be poorer than older people wo men tend to have less income than men and African-Americans tend to have less income than white Americans.Repeat Victimization and the Cycle of ViolenceUntil recently, there was little appreciation of the extent to which many people are victims of crime not just once, but several times during their lifetime. There was sufficient understanding of how repeated victimization increases the risk for and complexity of crime-related psychological trauma. Nor did we understand the extent to which victimization increases the risk of boost victimization and/or of violent behavior by the victim. Several studies try that a substantial proportion of crime victims has been victimized more than once and that a history of victimization increases the risk of subsequent violent assault (e.g. Kilpatrick et al., in press Koss & Dinero, 1989 Resnick, Kilpatrick, Dansky, Saunders & Best, 1993 Kilpatrick et al., 1992 Reiss & Roth, 1993 Wyatt, Guthrie & Notgrass, 1992 Zawitz, 1983).Other research suggest s that the risk of developing PTSD and substance use/abuse problems is higher among repeat victims of violent assault than among those who have experienced only one violent assault (e.g., Kilpatrick et al., in press Breslau et al., in press Kilpatrick, Resnick, Saunders, Best & Epstein, 1994). Still other evidence suggests that youth victimization history increases risk of involvement with delinquent peers and of subsequent delinquent behavior (Ageton, 1983 Dembo et al., 1992 Straus, 1984 Widom, 1989, 1992). Some research shows that involvement with delinquent or deviant peers increases the risk of victimization (e.g., Ageton, 1983), and that substance use also increases risk of victimization (e.g., Kilpatrick et al., 1994 Cottler, Compton, Mager, Spitznagel, and Janca, 1992).Another line of research has found that a history of child abuse and neglect increases risk of delinquent behavior during childhood and adolescence and of being arrested for violent assault as an adult (e.g., W idom, 1989, 1994). This new knowledge about repeat victimization and the cycle of violence has several implications for appropriate mental health counseling for crime victims Mental health professionals should include crime prevention and substance abuse prevention in their work with victims to decrease the risk that new victimization or substance abuse problems will occur (e.g., Kilpatrick et al., in press Kilpatrick et al., 1994). Mental health professionals should not assume that the crime they are treating is the only one the victim has experienced. This requires taking a careful crime victimization history. Providing effective mental health counseling to victims may well be an effective way to reduce the risk of future victimization, substance use/abuse, delinquency and violent behavior.Residential LocationWhere an individual lives influences ones risk of becoming a violent crime victim. Reiss and Roth (1993) report that violent crime rates increased as a function of communi ty size. For example, the violent crime rate was 359 per 100,000 residents in cities of less than 10,000 but 2,243 per 100,000 in cities with populations over a million translates to rates seven times greater. (Reiss & Roth, 1993 p. 79).Data including non-reported crimes from the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) also indicate that violent crime rates are highest in central cities, somewhat lower in suburban areas, and lowest in rural areas (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1992). The UCR and the NCVS are better at measuring street crime than at measuring violent crimes perpetrated by acquaintances or partners. Thus, the assumption that the increased risk of violent assault associated with residential location most likely results from stranger attacks, not necessarily from attacks by family members or other intimates, is a function of the limits of the measurement device.Exposure to Potential AssailantsNo violent assault can occur unless an assailant has access to a potential victim. Someone could have every(prenominal) previously discussed risk factor for violent assault and be completely safe from assault unless approached by an assailant. A prominent speculation attempting to predict risk of criminal victimization is the routine activities theory. As described by Laub (1990), the risk of victimization is related to a persons lifestyle, behavior, and routine activities. In turn, lifestyles and routine activities are generally related to demographic characteristics (e.g., age and matrimonial status) and other personal characteristics. If a persons lifestyle or routine activities places him or her in frequent contact with potential assailants, then they are more likely to be assaulted than if their routine activities and lifestyle do not bring them into as frequent contact with predatory individuals. For example, young men have higher rates of assaultive behavior than any other age-gender group (Reiss & Roth, 1993 Rosenberg & Mercy, 1991).Thus, those whose routine activities or lifestyles involve considerable contact with young men should have higher rates of victimization. Likewise, people who are married, who never leave their houses after dark, and who never take public transportation should have limited contact with young men, and therefore have reduced risk of assault. Although some have argued that routine activities theory has substantial support in the empirical literature (Laub, 1990 Gottfredson, 1981), most of the crime victimization data that are used to evaluate assault risk measure stranger assaults much better than partner or acquaintance assaults. Thus, the theory is probably much more relevant to stranger assaults than to other assaults.VI. Conclusion and RecommendationCrime-related psychological trauma impairs the ability and/or willingness of many crime victims to assist with the criminal justice system. Many argued that victims must be treated better by the criminal justice system because it cannot accomplish its mission without the cooperation of victims. At every key stage of the criminal justice system processfrom contemplating making a report to police, to attending a parole hearinginteractions can be stressful for victims and often exacerbates crime-related psychological trauma. Victims whose crime-related fear makes them reluctant to report crimes to police or who are too terrified to testify, effectively make it impossible for the criminal justice system to accomplish its mission. Thus, it is important to understand Victims crime-related mental health problems. What aspects of the criminal justice system process are stressful to victims. What can be done to help victims with their crime-related mental health problems. What can be done to help victims cope with criminal justice system-related stress. Effective partnerships among the criminal justice system, victim assistance personnel, and trained mental health professionals can help victims with crime-related psychological trau ma and with criminal justice system-related stress.By helping victims through such partnerships, the criminal justice system also helps itself become more effective in curbing and reducing crime. Several factors in the application of different conditioning principles to victims interactions with the criminal justice system helps us understand why the criminal justice system is so stressful for many victims. First, involvement with the criminal justice system requires crime victims to encounter many cognitive and environmental stimuli that remind them of the crime. These range from Having to look at the defendant in the courtroom. Having to think about details of the crime when preparing to testify. Confronting a member of second-order conditioned stimuli in the form of police, victim/witness advocates, and prosecutors. Second, encountering all these crime-related conditioned stimuli often results in avoidance behavior on the part of the victims. Such avoidance behavior is generat ed by conditioned fear and anxiety, not by apathy. Avoidance can lead victims to cancel or not show up for appointments with criminal justice system officers, or victim advocates. Aside from conditioning, there are several other reasons that interacting with the criminal justice system can be stressful for victims. One reason interactions are stressful is because victims lack information about that system and its procedures, and victims fear the unknown. A second reason interactions are stressful is that victims are concerned about whether they will be believed and taken seriously by the criminal justice system. Most victims view the criminal justice system as representative of society as a whole, and whether they are believed and taken seriously by the system indicates to them whether they are believed and taken seriously by society.VI. Bibliography1. (Bachman, 1994 Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1992 FBI Uniform Crime Reports, 1992 Hanson, Freedy, Kilpatrick, and Saunders, 1993 Ki lpatrick, Seymour & Boyle, 1991 Breslau, Davis, Andreski, and Peterson, 1991 Kilpatrick , Resnick, Saunders, and Best, in press Norris, 1992 Adler et al., 1994 Reiss & Roth, 1993 Rosenberg & Mercy, 1991).2. Dussich, John and Kiyoko Kishimoto. 2000. Victim Assistance in Japan History, Culture and Programmes. In Paul C. Friday and Gerd Ferdinand Kirchhoff (editors) Victimology at the Transition From the 20th to the 21st Century Essays in Honor of Hans Joachim Schneider. M nchengladbach, Germany Shaker Verlag. 3. Schafer, Stephen. 1968. The Victim and His Criminal. New York Random House. 4. www.wikipedia.com5. www.google.com.ph Victimology

Two Reports On Serious Failings

The first narration I found from http//www. bbc. co. uk/news/uk-england-bristol-20084254 was for Winterbourne fit boot home for people with disabilities the report says eleven negociate lamers male and female were involved. One victim was showered fully clothed and had m bulge outh wash poured into her eyes , while another was asked if they wanted their face grated with a high mallow grater , the holler got so much for one patient that he tried jumping out of his window from the second floor to because be mocked by the care workers, this all came to light by BBC One Panorama doing undercover recordings it was told to CQC that ignored the complaint.After the recordings were shown on BBC one the eleven care workers admitted to 38 different charges of abuse and neglect, six were jailed between six months to two years while the other five were on suspended sentences, the CQC said it was misjudgement that the concerns had not been investigated.The second report I found from http//w ww. bbc. co.uk/news/uk-england-lancashire-24838898 was for Hillcroft Nursing home for people with advanced dementia the report says three female care workers were in involved in the abuse towards eight residents, the abuse involved was physical abuse because they were slapped, tipped out of chairs and had things thrown at them and allegedly stamping on the feet of one resident and then emotional abuse because the care workers were mocking them after the physical abuse, they were found out because the cleaner witnessed the abuse and made the allegations which resulted in the staff being suspended.But the returned to work after being given warnings with an internal investigation and not referred for police investigation, shortly after this the CQC kept getting anonymous emails about the standard of care and they handed it over to the local authority harmlessguarding team who later called in the police. Both of these reports involve very serious cases of abuse and only found out when undercover recoding or a witness came forward this is something management should have picked up on, all managers have a duty to hire safe and caring workers and to send all care workers on mandatory training sessions that cover all topics and all policies and procedures are being set within the company. Winterboure View and Hillcroft Nursing home management have failed to do this and were unable to provide a safe environment for vulnerable adults.

Marketing Analysis of Red Bull in UK

There ar diverse factors which contri al wize to the performance or non-performance of a firm in the industry with respect to its foodstuffing. In order that the barriers to successful launching and change of the product are removed, the firms adopt different strategies for merchandise their products. It is not only the superiority of the product that determines the saleability of a product, but similarly how it is presented to the ultimate customers that similarly affaires. The merchandise strategies enable the firms to educate the customers on the utility as wholesome as quality of the products so that the customers are made to buy and use the product.In this respect the non-traditional strategies for marketing adopted by inflamed diddlyshit, the multinational energy take in in manufacturer has made their product a spectacular success in outsized number of countries including the United States, where the Company has a very huge market share of the b ever soages mark et. This oration proposal identifies the key marketing strategies of Red home run in UK for a possible dissertation presentation. Marketing Analysis of Red strapper in UK 1. 0 Introduction In 1982, Dietrich Mateschitz heard about tonic drinks in Asia.These drinks enjoyed wide spread popularity and this gave him the idea to market much(prenominal) functional drinks outback(a) Asia. Red mother fucker was initially developed in Thailand. Mateschitz bought the rights to market it world-wide excluding Thailand, which continued producing its own brand. Thus in 1984, Mateschitz founded the Red Bull GmbH company. He tweaked the taste of the drink and also changed some ingredients in order to make the drink more(prenominal) effective as an energy booster. He also developed a unparalleled marketing strategy and sold the product in the Austrian market.(Red Bull History) The dissertation proposed to be under taken go away present a comprehensive analytical track on the marketing stra tegy adopted by Red Bull for its success in the beverage market. 2. 0 Objectives, Scope and inquiry Methodology of the discourse In order to present a comprehensive study paper on the Marketing Strategies of Red Bull the seeker proposes to make an extensive enquiry in the available literature. To integrate the efforts and to fix the boundaries up to which the research is to be carried, this sort out of the proposal outlines the scope and objective of the study.The methods for conducting such research are also detailed herein. 2. 1 Objectives of the Study The proposal for this dissertation paper identifies the add uping objectives with respect to the chosen topic of the Marketing Analysis of Red Bull in the UK. The objectives are To make a complete analysis of the various marketing strategies adopted by Red Bull for the promotion of its product in the UK. such analysis will include the elements of marketing as also the advertize concepts that are following by Red Bull as a pa rt of the marketing strategy. To make a complete account statement on the efforts taken by the company, in bearingening its dispersion processes and brand construction as a part of the its marketing strategy To present a critical analysis of the superiority of the strategies for marketing that is existence followed by Red Bull. The objects of this study are proposed to be achieved by a thorough research into the available literature on the company Red Bull and its marketing and distribution strategies.Being a company of upstart origin and also because of a spectacular success in the beverages market, there are a number of articles and research studies available about the marketing strategies universe adopted by the company. A research in to various professional journals, magazines and technical literature will provide a deep insight in to the topic undertaken by the researcher. There are quite a number of websites available in the inter electronic network would also provide the basic information require to complete the study. 2. 2 Scope of the StudyTo achieve the objectives adumbrate, this proposal for the dissertation extends the scope of the study to the following areas for an extensive research and analysis An in-depth study into the methods of ad and sales promotion adopted by Red Bull as part of the marketing strategy will be undertaken by the researcher for the object of the presenting the dissertation. The study will extend to the analysis of the various other measures being taken by Red Bull which had the effect of promoting their product. Such measures include the sponsorship of primitive sports events by Red Bull. It is also proposed to make an analysis of the distinguishing features of the marketing strategies of Red bull. For this purpose, the study will detail an analysis of the impact of the marketing strategies and also try the positive effects of the marketing strategies of the company Red Bull. 2. 3 look for Methodology Differ ent research methods are to be used to complete the dissertation project. It is important to use both secondary and primary sources of information to achieve the goal and objectives of the study. Overall, the inductive research method is to be used because it is more earmark for the purpose of the dissertation.Jill and Johnson (2002) write that induction is the construction of explanations and theories about what has been observed learning by reflecting upon particular late(prenominal) experiences and through with(predicate) the formulation of abstract concepts, theories and generalisations that explain past and predict future, experience. Due to the practical nature of the chosen topic, Marketing Analysis of Red bull in UK induction is more suitable since the seed will first collect entropy, observe, analyse and only then present his findings and conclusions.Additionally, qualitative rather than quantitative research methods will be used because the comportment of the project is not to analyse figures or statistics but to observe, interpret and make recommendations if any. The general belief of business research is often thought of as roll up data, constructing questionnaires and analysing data. But it also includes identifying the problem and how to proceed solving it (Ghauri et al. , 1995) Data sources crapper be described as the carriers of data (information). There are two types of data sources (Ghauri et al. , 1995) 1. Primary data (field) is collected specifically for the research project.This will be in the form of observations and interviews. 2. Secondary data (desk) is collected by others. These include pedantic and non-academic sources. 2. 4 Qualitative Methods The qualitative method is one of the two major approaches to research methodology in social science, which involves investigating participants opinions, behaviours and experiences from the informants points of view. In contrast with the quantitative research method, the qualitative r esearch method does not rely on quantitative measurement and mathematical models, but instead uses logical deductions to decipher gathered data dealing with the human element.In qualitative research method non-quantitative methods of data collection and analysis are being used (Lofland & Lofland1984) 2. 5 Quantitative Method Quantitative method is a research method which depends less on subjective methods but is more focused on the collection and analysis of numerical data. Quantitative research involves analysis of numerical data. According to burn and Grove, Quantitative research is a formal, objective, organized process in which numerical data are utilised to obtain information about the research question (Burns and Grove cited by Cormack 1991 p 140).Quantitative research uses the methods which are designed to ensure objectivity and reliability. In this method the researcher is considered external to the actual research and results are expected to be the same, no matter who cond ucts the research.. Out of the above discussions on the research methodology, the proposal advocates, inductive and qualitative research methods for the supplying of the dissertation through primary as well as secondary sources. 3. 0 Literature Review The Company Red Bull has emerged as a big success and is presently selling in large number of countries all over the world.The grand success of the company is mainly due to the novel marketing strategy adopted by the company in promoting its product by following unconventional means of advertising. Bevnet, the website on the beverage advanceds indicates that Red Bull is a utility drink to be taken against mental or physical weariness or exhaustion. In fact this is the philosophy on which the marketing of Red Bull is based. But in malevolence of the heavy advertising Countries like Norway, Denmark and France are so nervous about the cans contents, theyve banned the sale of Red Bull. (CBC News) Websites like Snopes.com claim that Re d Bull energy drink contains a banned, government manufactured stimulant linked to the formation of brain tumours. But Red Bull never got perturbed by these negative campaigns. This literature review makes a presentation on the marketing strategies adopted by the company for the promotion of its products in the UK. While discussing the superiority of the marketing strategy of the company, the study also details the efforts of the company in the brand construction. 3. 1 Marketing Strategy of Red Bull in UK Red Bull GmBH is a privately owned Austrian company, with sales of $1640 million in 2003 and 1850 employees.Since introducing Red Bull in 1987, the brunt of investment for the company has been in brand building and quirky marketing. While many companies spend on product diversification, Red Bull has stuck constantly to their single product with its unchanged taste. Red Bull also has unusual distribution. The company relies heavily on bars and night clubs, where they let people samp le the product. They also sponsor alternative sports to promote the drink. Traditional advertising is the last thing that the company invests in. Red Bull has built for itself an image of being a luxury or an identification of a lifestyle.Red Bull claims that Research has proven that just one or two cans of Red Bull can help alleviate the effects of tiredness there is no added do good in consuming the product in excessive amounts (BBC. Co. UK). The strong point for the marketing of Red Bull in UK is the strong distribution set up it holds in there. Such stronger distribution is not prevalent in the other markets for Red Bull. Red Bull has spread its wings in the US also. Amy Scott observes common in Europe for years, Red Bull has been making a slow and steady dent in the American energy drink market. Money elaboration says In the US Red Bull is popular with college kids and night clubbers, whom the company aggressively targets. 3. 2 Distribution Network of Red Bull in UK In the year 2002 Red bull dominated 46 percent of the sports drink market in the UK. The company was able to achieve this great a superlative in the sports drink market, by a strong distribution network it carries in UK which is considered as its best marketing strategy for the promotion of sales. As a start up measure Red Bull approached small distributors and encouraged them to stock and sell the drink Red Bull only.With the successful brand building by the company the distributor would be able to break even within a short period and will become profitable in just less than six months. Then the distributor becomes attached to the selling of the drink and starts to get supplies directly from the company. Similar arrangements are being entered with other forms of selling points like hot night clubs and trendy pubs and bars. Along with supplies of few cases of the drinks, the company supplies a Red Bull Branded Cooler and other Promotional materials.Such a kind of distribution approach gi ves not only a larger visibility for the product but also a fertile ground for the new drinks to emerge victorious against competition. The company also had internal set up with separate units responsible for selected areas. These units will be responsible for creating the distribution networks, communication with the networks, marketing and sales promotion in the designated areas though the developed distribution network. 3. 3 Marketing Mix Strategy of Red Bull Traditional marketing unremarkably falls into the following four categories which can be controlled.They are product, price, place and promotion and are known as the marketing mix. James Culliton described the marketing manager as a mixer of ingredients. However the term was popularized in 1964 when Neil H. Borden in an article referred to them as the marketing mix. (Net MBA) Red Bull how ever has its own marketing mix strategy. The company spent close to six million pounds on marketing in 1998. The marketing strategy of Re d Bull is dependent up on three important aspects which are known as Three Pillar Marketing System. They are The first one is mainstream media advertising. The second is extreme sports events sponsorship and Third, by sampling presentations to the consumers 3. 4 Porters Five Forces Analysis The five lunges analysis on Red Bull can be summarized as below Barriers to New Entrants The beverage drink industry needs a strong distribution network for the distribution of the drinks. The access to the distribution network poses a barrier for any new entrant. Moreover building a brand image needs considerable time and money being spent on the product promotion which also acts as a barrier for new entries in the market. Power of CustomersThe force of power of customers acts very strongly on the total beverage market as there are a number of alternative products available and switching to the alternate product doesnt cost the consumer any extra cost. Hence even a small variation in quality or price will have an quick impact on the product showing a strong customer power. Power of Suppliers It cannot be said that the power of suppliers has a major impact on the industry as the major ingredients are not very scarce. Mostly each beverage company has its own formulas that cannot be infringed by any contest or supplier.The major raw materials are water and some chemicals which are easily available in the market. Hence power of suppliers is not strong force acting on the industry. Substitute Products There are a plenty of substitutes available in the market in the form of soft drinks that attract the customers through promotions and catchy advertising campaigns. The competition is made stiff with the availability of a number of substitute products. Hence this force needs to be reckoned while assessing the strength of the product within the market. Competitor RivalryAlready the industry is facing heavy competition among the major players with their established brands. In addition, the forces of powers of customers and the availability of substitute products also adds up the competition. So in order to achieve growth in the market share and sustain the growth achieved Red Bull should continue to follow all its marketing strategies and novel ideas of retaining old customers and attracting new customers. 5. 0 Structure of the Final Dissertation The dissertation paper proposes to make a comprehensive report on the Marketing Strategy of the Company Red Bull Gmbh in UK.With the help of the collected information from the various sources, the report will identify the various marketing strategies adopted by Red Bull in UK for its successful launch and growth in the UK market and also critically analyse the strengths and weaknesses of such strategies. In addition, the study will cover the Competitors strengths against Red Bull. In order to have a coherence of thought and clarity the dissertation paper will be structured as below Abstract Chapter 1 Introductio n Chapter 2 Literature Review Chapter 3 Research Methodology Chapter 4 Findings and give-and-take Chapter 5 Conclusion RecommendationReferences Appendices The dissertation will generally follow the flow and substance outlined in the body of this proposal. Wherever necessary additional inputs in the form of excerpts from books and journal articles will be included to increase the informative strength of the concept, although the structure of the dissertation will be maintained as outlined here. 6. 0 Time Table In order to accomplish the data collection, analysis and summing up being major processes of writing up the dissertation paper, the preparation and presentation of the dissertation report has been proposed to follow the time schedule indicated belowSubmission of Dissertation Proposal 15th May 2007 Approval of the Proposal twentieth May 2007 Collection of Data 30th May 2007 Collection of resources 15th June 2007 Preparation of Draft Report 20th June 2007 Submission of Final Dissertation twenty-fifth June 2007 References 1. Amy Scott Its Not the Thirsty, But Energy Fiends Who Imbibe Red Bull http//journalism. berkeley. edu/projects/drink/redbull. html 2. Anni Layne Rodgers (2001)Its a (Red) Bull Market After All truehearted Company. comhttp//www. fastcompany. com/articles/2001/10/redbull. html 3. BBC. Co. UK Prison for Red Bull Binge Driver http//news. bbc. co. uk/1/hi/england/norfolk/4634638. stm 4. Bevenet Red Bull Energy Drink http//www. bevnet. com/reviews/redbull/ 5. Burns and Grove cited by Cormack (1991), p. 140, taken form Ways of Approaching Research Quantitative Design in December 2003. 6. CBC News (2005) Raging Bull Health warnings over popular energy drink being brushed off? http//www. cbc. ca/consumers/market/files/health/redbull/index. html 7. Drawert. com The Marketing Mix Strategyhttp//www. drawert. com/red_bull_7. php 8. Gobe (2001) aflame Branding The New Paradigm for Connecting Brands to People Allworth Press 9. Ghauri, P. , Gronh aug K and Kristianslund I. , (1995) Research methods in business studies a practical guide Hempstead, Prentice Hall 10. Jill, J. and Johnson, P. (2002). Research methods for managers. 3d ed. London Sage Publications 11. Lofland, John and Lyn H. Lofland. (1984). Analyzing Social Settings A Guide to Qualitative Observation and Analysis. Belmont, CA Wadsworth. 12. Money Culture The Murketing of Red Bull http//www.robwalker. net/html_docs/redbull. html 13. Nancy F. Koehn, (2001) Brand New How Entrepreneurs Earned Consumers Trust from Wedgwood to Dell Harvard Business School Press 14. Net MBA The Marketing Mix The 4 Ps of Marketing http//www. netmba. com/marketing/mix/ 15. Red Bull History A Refreshed Crew is an Efficient Crew http//www. speedace. info/red_bull. htm 16. Saunders, M. , Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A. (2003) Research Methods for business students tertiary ed. , Harlow, Essex, FT Prentice Hall 17. Snopes. com Bull Marketed http//www. snopes. com/medical/potables/redbull. asp

Alcohol Drinking in Germany

Alcohol has the tendency to be a cause of death for a vast fig of people. The use of goods and services of alcohol can also have a consequence on your brain which in turn makes you tremble at the same cartridge clip as loosing control over all of your senses, and it can also kill parts of your brain cells. What is more is that alcohol consumption can cause your colorful to depreciate and not function appropriately.Liver transplants are not easy to take place and they rarely take place. Even if it does take place it is hard for a person with liver transplant to survive for too long. Even though it is general knowledge that alcohol consumption has the tendency to kill people, still there are millions of people who consume great amounts of alcohol on daily basis (Martina, Gert, Eckardt and Klaus, 2003).As known to all, Germany is perhaps one of the most alcohol-drinking nations from all over Europe, be fifth right after Luxembourg, Hungary, Czech Republic and Ireland. Only a small percent of about five percent of the people of Germany seem to peal themselves as teetotalers, which are people who completely abstain themselves from the use of alcoholic beverages, ranking it, after Luxembourg as the European nation that has the lowest fate of people who do not drink at all.With reference According to the World Health Organization, and as has been proved by a vast calculate of studies, the whole of Europe is said to have the highest amount of alcohol consumption with comparison to all of the other parts of the world rating it per capita consumption as twice as high as compared with the average of the entire world.AnalysisAs has been mentioned before, the most prevalent problem in the whole of Germany is said to be of alcohol consumption abd dependance on it as well. This is a statement that has been verified by Peter Lang, who is basically the head of drug prevention and abuse at the German Center for Health Education (Ryan, 2006).Basically alcohol abuse is sa id to be the most common as well as the largest of all social problems inwardly Germany. As is known to all, Bildunterschrift dangerous and detrimental using up is without a doubt connected with a number of psychosomatic, communal and physical condition problems, and in addition has a considerable economic bang on the social order as a whole.In the words of Peter Lang, Its difficult to say what is causation this, because alcohol is more or less an accepted drug in a lot of circumstances, care for parties or other social occasions. If you compare Germany to countries like the US, there is drinking in public that is different and more accepted. Consuming alcohol during the day is really more accepted here in Germany, (Ryan, 2006).

African Americans Status in 1890 Essay

There were many riddles that African Americans faced in the 1890s some of which still exist in at presents society. African Americans have come a long way and earned many rights but still live with the hardships that they had in the 1890s. The status of African Americans at this time in United States history was not good. Blacks had a very hard time living especially in the south.The problems that blacks dealt with were primarily imbed in the south where they were not accepted. Segregation became huge across the entire south after the Supreme Court ruled that Separate but competent was legal in the Plessy v. Ferguson case. Everything was separate but it was almost never equal. Whites always had things better than African Americans did. Blacks could not ride in the same train cars as whites. The national government gave blacks the right to vote but southern state governments took away that right through the use of poll taxes and literacy tests.A blown-up problem that blacks faced was trying to stay alive. Many blacks were killed for no reason during this period of time. Jim Crow laws were set up to keep blacks from enjoying the same rights and privileges that whites enjoyed everyday. The Ku Klux Klan was set up by whites who had hatred for blacks. Blacks in the south feared for their lives and their families lives everyday. It was certain that African Americans would be confronted by racism each and everyday in the south.Relationships between blacks and whites have greatly improve in the last century but things still are not perfect and it is unlikely that they ever will be. The greatest changes were made during the civil rights fecal matter in the 1950s and 1960s when blacks stood up for themselves and gained their rights as American citizens. Laws were finally passed that made literacy tests and poll taxes illegal. Segregation came to an end after Brown v. Board of gentility turned over the ruling made in Plessy v. Ferguson.There was no longer Separate but equal, it was now just equal. Although many big steps have been taken to stopping racism and segregation it still exists in our lives today. African Americans still see racism everyday even though they are now doing many things with whites.Blacks and whites have been able to peacefully interact with each other for decades but you still see newspapers talking about segregation and racism. The overall improvement has been very significant. Comparing todays society to the 1890s show a lot of good change yet thither are still problems in our society with race relations.